Contents
Preface / xi
Intyroduction / 1
How this thesis come to be written / 1
Subject of this study / 9
A not e on the written sources / 12
A note on the transcription of oriental words / 14
Chapter I General information on Kurdistan / 16
I. a Geography / 16
I. b Geopolitical situation / 19
I. c Population / 20
I. d Economies: peasant farming, transhumant semi-nomadism, pastoral nomadism / 22
I. e Other economic activities: crafts/industries and trade; development and under-development / 26
I. f Language / 29
I. g Religion / 31
I. h The nationalist war in Iraq / 34
Chapter II Tribes, chieftains and non-tribal groups / 39
II. a The tribe and its subdivisions /40
The household / 42
The village / 47
Corporate action on levels other than the village / 48
II. b Kurdish terms / 52
II. c Blood feuds and other conflicts / 59
Ending feuds by mediation / 63
Marriage type and tribal conflict / 68
Other sorts of conflict / 69
II. d Higher than the tribe? / 70
Units larger than the tribe / 70
Dichotomy of the social universe / 73
II. e Leadership and conflicts / 78
Who becomes the leader? / 79
II. f Leadership: titles and functions / 81
II. g The guest-house (dîwan, dîwanxane) / 82
II. h Economic aspects: tribute to the agha / 88
The Balik tribe as an example / 89
II. i .Leadership among a number of different tribes / 91
Hengûr / 92
Pijder / 94
Hemewend / 97
Dizeyî / 99
II. j Power as o process: colonization of the northern Cezîre / 102
The Hevêrkan confederation and Hoco / 110
II k Subject "non-tribal" peasantry and their relations with tribal Kurds / 117
Economic exploitation of peasantry by tribesmen / 118
Ethnic differences / 119
II. l The Gûron / 122
Conclusion: Gûran and gûran / 129
Intermezzo: religious peculiarities of the Gûran / 130
How Kurdish are the Gûran? / 133
II. m Nomads and peasants: one or two peaples? / 135
Conclusion / 144
Chapter III Tribes and the state
III. a Resume of characteristics of the Kurdish tribe; introduction to the discussion in this chapter / 145
III. b Tribes of Kurdistan not autonomous units / 148
III. c Same recurring patterns: tribes and the government of states in the Middle East / 150
III. d Same recurring patterns: centre- periphery relations / 153
The Merwanids / 156
III. e The incorporation of Kurdistan into the Ottoman Empire / 161
Prelude: Qaraqoyunlu and Aqqayunlu / 161
The Safavids / 163
The event s as seen from below / 167
Ottoman-Safavid confrontation / 168
Ottoman policy vis-à-vis the Kurds / 169
III. f Political history of same Kurdish emirates / 172
1. The meliks of Hisnkeyf / 172
2. Hekari and its mirs / 174
3. Çemişkezek / 179
III. g Administrative organization of (Ottoman) Kurdistan in the 16th century / 181
Land regime and administrative organization of the Ottoman Empire (15th - 16th centuries) / 181
The application of Ottoman administrative organization in Kurdistan / 189
III. h Internal organization of the Kurdish emirates / 194
1. Bitlis / 195
2. Baban / 208
III. i Intermezzo: the emigration to northeastern Iran / 215
III. j Political changes in the 19th century / 220
III. k The rise of Bedr Xan Beg and the fall of the emirate of Botan / 222
Botan after the disappearance of the mir / 227
Conclusion / 228
III. l The new land code and its effects / 229
Land policy of the British in Iraqi Kurdistan / 232
III. m The establishment of Kurdish tribal militias: Hamidiye / 233
III. n Changes in the early 20th century / 239
New borders: the further partitioning of Kurdistan / 240
Tribal policies of the successor states / 241
III. o A few remarks to conclude this chapter / 244
Chapter IV Shaikhs: mystics, saints and politicians / 249
IV a Introductory remarks / 249
IV b The dervish and sufi orders / 259
IV c Sufi and dervish orders: organized popular mysticism / 262
IV d History of the Qadiri order as an example / 269
IV e Other saints of Kurdistan / 275
IV f Qadiri shaikhs in Kurdistan / 277
Şex Hehmûd's revolts / 278
The Talebani shaikhs / 280
IV. g The Naqshbandi tariqa and the Naqshbandi order / 281
IV. h Why did the Naqshbandi order spread so rapidly? / 284
IV i Rituals of the Qadiri order / 296
IV. j The Naqshbandi ritual / 305
The meditations in the Naqshbandi ritual / 308
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy / 312
IV. k Shaikh and khalifa; relations with other shaikhs / 313
IV. l The shaikh and his followers / 315
IV. m The economic power of shaikhs / 318
IV. n Two shaikhs: Şex Osman of Durû and Şex Saida of Cezire / 319
Şex Osman / 319
Şex Saida / 324
IV. o Massianism / 327
IV. p Lass of influence of shaikhs / 333
IV. q Islamic revival: nurculuk / 338
Appendix to Chapter IV / 340
I. Branches of the Berzenci family / 341
II. The Sedate Nehri and the Barzani family / 345
III. The sheikhs of Biyare/Tawêla and of Palû / 348
IV. Other important Naqshbandi families / 349
V. More influential Naqshbandi sheikhs / 350
Chapter V Șêx Seîd's revolt / 353
V. a Introduction / 353
A note on the sources for this chapter / 354
V. b History of Kurdish national consciousness / 356
Periods in nationalism / 357
Kurds: a nation? / 358
Nationalist currents in the Ottoman Empire / 360
V. c End of the Ottoman Empire and birth of the Republic of Turkey / 362
Armenian massacres and Russian invasion / 362
Armistice and partition of the Empire / 363
The Turkish War of Independence / 364
The Republic of Turkey / 367
The Mosul question / 368
V. d The first Kurdish political organizations / 369
Nationalist organizations after the war and the kemalists / 373
Azadî / 376
V. e Şex Seid's revolt / 378
The religious factor / 378
A contemporary view of the state of affairs in 1924 / 380
Ehsan Nûrî's mutiny and desertion / 382
New plans for the revolt / 383
Outbreak of the revolt / 385
Suppression of the revolt / 389
V. f External and internal support for the revolt / 394
British aid ? / 394
Arms / 395
Turkish opposition / 395
V. g Participation among the Kurds / 397
Non-tribal Kurds / 399
Urban notables / 400
Urban lower classes / 401
V. h The Naqshbandî order and the revolt / 401
V. i Religious vs. nationalist character of the revolt / 404
Chapter VI / 407
Some oriental terms occurring in this book / 422
Notes / 425
Bibliography / 449
Index / 460
Beknopte samenvatting (short summary in Dutch) / 463
List of maps and figures
Map 1 (general map) / ix
Map 2 The Kurds in the Middle East / 17
Map 3 Oil installations and international transport routes in Kurdistan / 20
Map 4 Dialects spoken in Kurdistan / 31
Map 5 Places and tribes mentioned in Chapter II / 58
Map 6 The northern Cezîre / 103
Map 7 Qaraqoyunlu and Safavid empires / 165
Map 8 Location of the most important emirates / 190
Map 9 Bitlîs and its surroundings / 197
Map 10 Baban and its surroundings 209
Map 11 Khorasan / 219
Map 12 The emirate of Botan at the period of greatest expansion (1846) / 223
Map 13 Important centres of propagation of the Naqshbandî order / 283
Map 14 The areas affected by Şêx Seîd's revolt / 386
Map 15 The districts in revolt (after the daily Cumhuriyet, March 27, 1925) / 388
Fig. 1 Segmentary lineage structure / 42
Fig. 2 Consistent father's brother's daughter marriage / 69
Fig. 3 Partial family tree of the Dûrikî aghas (mala Ebbas) / 105
Fig. 4 Partial family tree of the Hevêrkan aghas (mala Osman) / 112
Fig. 5 Social stratification of Kurdish society / 143
Fig. 6 Growth of the administrative network and the breaking up of large autonomous units in the periphery / 245
Fig. 7 As the administrative network is refined, local units become smaller and less complex / 247
Fig. 8 Structure and phases of development of the Oadirî and Naqshbandî orders in Kurdistan / 287
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