Iraqi Kurdistan: Political development and emergent democracy
Iraqi Kurdistan is at a crossroads in terms of its political development. At the time of writing, the political parties of Iraqi Kurdistan have governed and administered the region under their territorial control since 1991, when the administration and military forces of the Government of Iraq (GOI) withdrew from the north of the country. The intervening decade has not been an easy period for the Iraqi Kurdish de facto state and its people. For the first five years of the 1990s, the political system of the region exhibited widespread instability, with internecine fighting being common, and the involvement of foreign national governments in the affairs of the fledgling de facto state seemingly being a constant feature of political life.
However, since 1997, Iraqi Kurdish politics have stabilized significantly, with the region split between the two major parties of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Both parties recognized that if they did not possess the strength to usurp the other, or the political will to promote a unified system of governance, then a divided situation would be the next best thing. Recently, in April 2002, the first signs of a possible re-unification of the administration have been seen. The leaders of the KDP and PUK, Massoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani respectively, met in Frankfurt, Germany, to discuss several key issues including Kurdish involvement with US plans to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein and efforts to promote cooperation within the Kurdish ranks, including the bringing together of certain Kurdish public service ministries. But, whilst such actions may occur, senior representatives of both sides privately acknowledge that a full unification is not entertained.
Combined with these developments, a dynamic which fundamentally affects Iraqi Kurdistan is the United Nations (UN) imposed sanctions against Iraq. Sanctions have resulted in widespread hardship for the Iraqi people as a whole, but, with the passing of Security Council Resolution (SCR) 986, which allowed significant amounts of oil to be sold by Iraq in order to purchase humanitarian supplies, conditions in Iraqi Kurdistan have improved. Thirteen per cent of the revenues were guaranteed for the northern governorates under Kurdish control, administered by the agencies of the UN, with the assistance of the Kurdish local authorities.
Contents
List of figures / ix List of tables / x Foreword / xi Acknowledgements / xiii List of abbreviations / xv
1. Introduction / 1 Statement of hypothesis / 5 Structure of book / 7
2. Theory and methodology / 11 Theoretical focus / 12 Theories of ‘the state’ / 13 The development of the political system / 16 Comparative political theories / 18 Consociational political systems / 19 Field method / 22
3. Contextual analysis / 26 The geographical context of Iraqi Kurdistan / 26 Language / 37 Religion and minorities / 38 The economic structures of Iraqi Kurdistan / 40 The economy in the 1970s and 1980s / 44 The economy in the 1990s / 47 Conclusion / 58
4. The development of the party political system / 60 The origins of the party political system / 60 The Kurdistan Democratic Party / 61 The development of the system: the Kurdish Revolution, 1961–1975 / 69 The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan / 79 The KDP and PUK in the aftermath of 1975 / 86 Conclusion / 93
5. The decision-making processes of the KDP and PUK / 94 Chronological analysis of the 1990s / 95 The KDP and PUK / 103 Conclusion / 119
6. The organizational structure of the Kurdistan Regional Government(s) / 121 The aftermath of the Rapareen / 122 The elections / 129 The morphology and prescribed operating procedures of the Kurdistan National Assembly / 131 The morphology and prescribed operating procedures of the executive offices of the KRG / 136 The Judiciary / 141 Conclusion / 144
7. The Kurdistan Regional Government(s), 1992–2002 / 145 The Kurdistan Regional Government, 1992–1996 / 145 The first cabinet of the KRG / 147 The second cabinet of the KRG / 149 The polarization of the political system / 151 Divided government and the establishment of the third cabinets / 153 The third cabinets of the KRG / 157 Analysis of the decision-making process of the third and fourth cabinets / 166 Conclusion / 174
8. Conclusion / 177
Postscript / 181 Iraqi Kurdish developments / 182
Appendix 1 Population statistics / 186 Appendix 2 Key agreements between parties / 192 Appendix 3 Party lists / 198 Appendix 4 Election results and KNA representatives / 201
Notes / 209
Bibliography / 238
Index / 256
Foreword
Kurdistan is neither a politically defined entity nor a state but an area of some 191,600km2 straddling the boundaries of several countries, notably Turkey, Iran and Iraq. Within the area are some twenty-five million ethnic Kurds and globally, the Kurds probably represent the largest nation in the world to have been denied an independent state. For most of the twentieth century, the Kurds have fought to obtain greater autonomy within their different states, while retaining the ultimate vision of an independent Kurdistan. However, the problems they face differ from state to state and they have been unable to develop a cohesive approach.
Within the area, Iraqi Kurdistan has for more than ten years acted as a de facto state. Located at the crossroads of the world, it is of compelling geopolitical interest and constitutes a key global flashpoint. It is surrounded by states which are actually or potentially hostile: Syria, Turkey, Iran and the remainder of Iraq. However, as a landlocked territory it is dependent upon the goodwill of neighbours for its communication system. It remains part of Iraq and is located on the headwaters of the major rivers but it is ethnically distinct.
The political situation is as fascinating as the geographical. The government, the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG), comprises two units which are totally separate both politically and geographically. Furthermore, each represents one party. Thus, government and party in Iraqi Kurdistan are synonymous. The two key parties: the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) in the west and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) in the east have developed differently and have distinctive regional linkages. Following bouts of interfactional fighting, the two parties have developed a divided system of government since 1996 and, despite a number of upsets, this has remained relatively robust until the present time. Thus, despite the instability engendered by the activities of its neighbouring states, particularly Turkey, and the global focus upon Iraq, there has been stability and the possible initiation of what might be considered consociation.
This book examines all the main issues: geographical, political and geopolitical in detail and provides a wealth of accurate detail and insight unavailable in any other volume. The author, Dr Gareth Stansfield, worked for most of the period 1997–2000 on a variety of projects in Iraqi Kurdistan. This continuous presence on the ground together with his own geographical and political expertise allowed Gareth to develop close links with every department throughout the KRG. He also worked closely with the United Nations and a variety of other agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Above all, he developed close personal relationships with the leadership of both the KDP and the PUK. Indeed, I heard both Massoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani refer to him as the most knowledgeable person on Kurdish governmental affairs. Using his own considerable research and in particular the results of detailed interviews throughout his network, Gareth has produced a treatise which is both formidable in its content and timely in its appearance.
For the past twelve years, Iraq has seldom been far from world headlines and at present media interest is intense. Therefore, any authoritative account of Iraqi Kurdistan is of interest. However, the importance of the book is enhanced by the fact that the Kurds form the core of the internal opposition to Saddam Hussein and the de facto state itself provides a possible model for a future democratic federal state of Iraq. The present political position in Iraqi Kurdistan results, in great measure, from the way in which the two major political parties have evolved. This is considered in detail, illuminated by interviews with many who have taken part in critical events. The contemporary situation of the two parties is assessed, in particular their approaches to government. The structure and modes of decision making within both parts of the KRG are then described in detail and evaluated. Little of this material has previously been recorded with such detail and accuracy.
The result is a compelling volume which fills a major gap in the literature but, more important, will serve as a significant guide for forthcoming events in Iraq. As the future unfolds, the Kurds and Iraqi Kurdistan are likely to be central in the affairs of greater Iraq.
Ewan Anderson Emeritus Professor of Geopolitics University of Durham
Iraqi Kurdistan Political development and emergent democracy
Gareth R. V. Stansfield
First published 2003 by RoutledgeCurzon 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by RoutledgeCurzon 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003.
RoutledgeCurzon is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Stansfield, Gareth R. V. Iraqi kurdistan : emergent democracy / Gareth R.V. Stansfield. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Kurdistan (Iraq)—Politics and government—20th century. 2. Political parties—Iraq—Kurdiståan—History—20th century. 3. Kurds—Government policy—Iraq. I. Title. JQ1849.A99 K8 2003 320.9567'2—dc2 2002152242
ISBN 0-203-39830-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-39935-8 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-30278-1 (Print Edition)
