Turkey is almost a terra incognita to the left, not only in the West but even in neighbouring Middle-Eastern countries. This collection of essays will help to fill the information gap. The essays, most of them written by prominent Turkish activists and intellectuals, provide an informative and critical account of Turkey’s economic and political development since the foundation of the Turkish Republic. The experience of the workers’ movement and the socialist left, as well as the feminist movement, are subjected to searching evaluation.
Khamsin is a hot desert wind which blows in the Middle East for fifty days each year. For many years a scorching wind has been blowing continually over the Middle East... Khamsin is a journal published by revolutionary socialists of the Middle East. It is also for them, and for socialists in other countries who are interested in that part of the world. Khamsin is a committed journal. It aims not merely to reflect and express, but also to be part of the struggles for social liberation and against nationalist and religious mystifications. All these struggles: - That of the Arab popular masses against imperialism, Zionism and the Arab ruling classes; - That of the Palestinian people, the most direct victims of Zionism, against their national and social oppression; - That of the anti-zionist left inside Israel; - That of the labouring classes in all the countries of the Middle East against ‘their own’ exploiters, and against oppressive class regimes throughout the region; - That of women throughout the region against their oppression and exploitation as women; - All these are inseparable aspects of one struggle, whose goals can be achieved only through the revolutionary overthrow of imperialist domination, the Zionist power-structure and all the existing regimes in the region, and the establishment of a united socialist Arab world, within which the non-Arab nationalities will also enjoy, by right and in fact, full social equality, individual liberty and national freedom. The members of Khamsin collective, from various countries of the region and belonging to different political tendencies, are united round this aim. However, Khamsin is not a political organ but a forum in which aims themselves, as well as the strategy for achieving them, can be debated and discussed ' among the various shades of revolutionary left opinion.
Contents
Editorial / 3
Capital and the state in contemporary Turkey Turgut Taylan / 5
The origins and legacy of Kemalism A. Ender / 47
The women’s question and difficulties of feminism in Turkey Pembenaz Yorgun / 70
The Turkish working class and socialist movement in perspective Mehmet Salah / 86
Turkish foreign relations Ron Ayres / 117
EDITORIAL
The ties between Turkey and the Arab East are far more profound and significant than those of mere geographic contiguity. For four centuries (since the beginning of the sixteenth) virtually the whole of this region was included in the temporal and religious domain of the Ottoman Turkish Empire and its Caliphate.
This long political, religious and cultural association was bound to leave deep traces. Even after the dissolution of the Empire and the abolition of the Caliphate, developments in Turkey continued to exert an influence—albeit indirect—on the rest of the region. Both Turkey and its former Arab provinces were faced by the same overriding problem: how to modernise an antiquated socio-economic structure, how to integrate into the modern world economy rather than be crushed by it. The road charted by Turkey—state-guided capitalist development under military-bureaucratic political control—was followed, a generation or so later, by most Arab countries.
Meanwhile, Turkey itself was turning its back on its long Middle-Eastern past, and looked exclusively to the west. But here too there has been some change. The Turkish bourgeoisie is now looking for a more active role in the Arab East. Another continuing link between Turkey and the rest of the Middle East is the Kurdish problem. Kurdistan, the homeland of the oppressed Kurdish nation, remains divided between several states, notably Turkey, Iraq and Iran.
For these and other reasons, rooted in history, geography and contemporary politico-economic realities, the interactions between Turkey and the rest of the region are unlikely to diminish in importance. This interdependence has so far received a sadly inadequate reflection in the political discourse of the left. Problems of the Arab East (and Israel) are discussed as if Turkey did not exist; and vice versa.
We in Khamsin have long felt that we ought to do something to help remedy this state of ignorance; but so far we have been unable to do so because we ourselves share this very ignorance. A happy way out of this impasse suggested itself when we made contact with a group of leftist Turkish intellectuals and activists, who agreed to impart to us some of their knowledge concerning their country. At our request, they later agreed to put together a special issue of Khamsin, wholly devoted to Turkey. We are extremely grateful to them for producing this excellent collection.
In his article ‘Capital and the State in Contemporary Turkey’, Turgut Taylan traces the origins of the 1980 military regime and outlines the political-economic history of the Turkish republic. He argues that the 1980 coup differs from previous military interventions in Turkey, inasmuch as it represents a ‘united front’ of the Turkish bourgeoisie in its attempt to break out of its immobilisme by a combination of severe repression and an ‘opening up’ of a formerly ‘protected’ economy.
In a challenging article, ‘The Origins and Legacy of Kemalism’, A. Ender argues that Kemalism—the specific form of Turkish nationalism—while overseeing the transformation of the Ottoman Empire into the Turkish Republic, was not particularly progressive, let alone revolutionary. Rather, the foundation of the republic was based on the forcible annexation of a considerable part of another nation (Kurdistan), and the repression of the workers’ movement. Ender points out that perceptions of Kemalism have, to this day, been tainted by ignoring the reactionary ‘original sin’ of its foundation.
In her article on women, Pembenaz Yorgun examines the extent and nature of women’s oppression in Turkey. She argues that this oppression is incommensurable with that of women in the advanced capitalist countries of the West. She analyses in some detail the attempt by the secular-modernist Kemalist movement to ameliorate women’s conditions, leading to the establishment of a Kemalist ‘feminist’ tradition among women in the higher echelons of Turkish society. Between this tradition and that of the workers’ parties, which tried to organise women for specifically ‘economic’ struggle, Yorgun outlines the possible shape of a future feminist movement in Turkey, and argues that the seeds of such a movement have already been planted under the dictatorship.
Mehmet Salah’s article on the Turkish workers’ and socialist movement provides a historical survey of these two interconnected strands of the movement. Concentrating in particular on the 1960s and 1970s, he examines the exceptional strengths as well as the fatal weaknesses of the Turkish left.
In addition to the articles written and edited by the collective that prepared this issue, we are also printing an article by Ron Ayres dealing with Turkey’s foreign relations, particularly in connection with Turkey’s key role in the West’s global military strategy.
Capital & Thestate in Contemporaryturkey
TurgutTaylan
When the military seized power in Turkey on 12 September 1980, there was a widespread feeling of deja vu both within the country and abroad. For this was the third military intervention to the feeble and already restricted democratic regime of the country since its advent in the aftermath of the Second World War. 1960, 1971, 1980: even the regularity of this succession seemed to suggest that the coup of 1980 was in the nature of things.
And yet, this new intervention is markedly original in its nature with respect to the earlier ones. There is, of course, the obvious fact that the 1980 military regime is incomparably more repressive against its political opponents than the earlier ones. But more decisive in their long-term implications are other aspects. For one thing, contrary to earlier episodes which lasted approximately two years each, the 1980 junta intends to continue its control of political life at least until the end of this decade. Thus despite the new constitution promulgated in November 1982 and the November 1983 elections among the junta’s hand-picked parties, there will be no democracy in Turkey in the foreseeable future. Closely linked, as we shall see, to this political aspect is the radical shift taking place in the pattern of capital accumulation and in the relations of the Turkish economy with the capitalist world economy. What is being witnessed is nothing less than a total break with the specific pattern of capitalist development dominant in Turkey since the rise of industrial capitalism. Militarily and culturally, too, the new era seems to stand for a revision of past tendencies. After having strived, since the foundation of the republic in 1923, to become a fully integrated member of the Western world, the Turkish state is once again turning its face to the Middle East.
In short, the coup of 12 September 1980 represents a radical rupture with the earlier tendencies of capitalist development in Turkey.
The fundamentally different nature of the 1980 military regime with respect to the earlier ones seems paradoxical when considered against the background of the periodic regularity of military interventions in Turkey. This seeming paradox poses two distinct questions, which need to be answered if one is to make sense of Turkish history. The first question relates to the recurrence of military episodes. What are the powerful tendencies in the political life of the country that have constantly reproduced the capacity and the willingness of the army to intervene again and again? The second question arises from the historical originality of the 1980 regime. Why has the 1980 coup become a turning point in the development of capitalism in Turkey? What is at stake in this profound mutation which the society is undergoing at present? If these two questions can be answered adequately, one can come to an understanding of both the specificity of the present military regime, as well as its continuity with the tradition of military interventions. This is all the more important since a widespread superficial approach postulates an identity among the three episodes and, hence, acts as a powerful obstacle to a clear analysis of present-day class struggles in Turkey.
This article will attempt to provide a coherent framework within which to answer these questions. The main body of the article will be devoted to the study of the period since the second war. However, the period of transition from the precapitalist era to bourgeois society having left its ineradicable imprint on the subsequent course of Turkish history, the first section will try to bring out the salient aspects of the foundation of the bourgeois republic and of the heritage of the Kemalist period. All through the article, my main emphasis will be on the process of the rise and consolidation of the capitalist mode of production and the related class struggles and alliances that have gone to shape this development, particularly within the sphere of the state. It is one of the main theses of this paper that Turkey’s position within the capitalist world economy is decisive in the overall pattern of development of its economy. Hence, reference will be made frequently to changes in the world economy. Political and military relations with the rest of the world, however, will be brought into the analysis only to the extent that they are indispensable for an understanding of the specific configurations of class forces within the country itself. I am aware that this is an important limitation. It can, nevertheless, be considered as an antidote to the generally one-sided emphasis on the politico-military role of US imperialism in shaping the history of the Turkish state.
The transition to bourgeois society
The birth of bourgeois society in Turkey was deeply marked by the specific constellation of contradictions that besieged Ottoman society at the dawn of the twentieth century. Through a long process stretching over centuries, the Ottoman economy had increasingly been brought …
Turgut Taylan
Modern Turkey: Development & Crisis
Khamsin
Khamsin Journal of revolutionary socialists of the Middle East Modern Turkey: Development & Crisis Capital & The State in Contemporary Turkey – Origins & Legacy of Kemalism – The Women’s Question & Difficulties of Feminism in Turkey A. Ender Pembenaz Yorgun Mehmet Salah Ron Ayres Turgut Taylan
Khamsin Journal of revolutionary socialists of the Middle East
Published for Khamsin by Ithaca Press, 13 Southwark Street, London SE1 Khamsin 1-4 were published in French by Editions Francois Maspero Khamsin 5 and 6 were published by Pluto Press Limited Editorial Group: Haim Bresheeth, Avishai Ehrlich, Emmanuel Farjoun, Mohammad Ja'far, Moshe Machover, Magida Salman, Haim Scortariu, Azar Tabari, Nira Yuval-Davis. Khamsin Collective: Dan Diner, Alexander Flores, Dina Hecht, Leila Kadi, Lafif Lakhdar, Mario Offenberg, Jon Rothschild, Khalil To‘ama. Articles and editorial correspondence: send to Khamsin, BM Khamsin, London WC1N 3XX. Authors are asked to send in two copies of their typescript, typed on A4 sheets (297mm x 210 mm) with broad margins and not more than thirty lines per page.
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