I. The Three Wilayas 'To the lover, Baghdad is not far off', 'A (false) account will come back even from Baghdad' ; by these and suchlike proverbs the Turk of Istanbul, half a century ago, confessed the remoteness of the sunbaked lands of Tigris and Euphrates. The three wilayas (vilayets) one day to become the 'Iraq Kingdom lay indeed upon the very borderland of Turkish possessions. At no time inhabited by Turks, they belonged rather to the northern extension of the Arabian peninsula, and formed the eastern half of its Fertile Crescent. The country had in older days formed the `Abbasid province of 'Iraq 'Arabi and part of Jazira. In the first three centuries of Turkish rule it had been united as the single eyalet of Baghdad, one of the great provinces of the Empire ruled by a three-tailed Pasha. Thanks to its ancient fame, its strategic position and present scale, Baghdad had always held easy primacy over the two other renowned cities of 'Iraq, Mosul and Basra; and even in 1900, after Mosul had emerged finally as a wilaya in 1879 and Basra in 1884, the Wali of Baghdad was by every standard the senior of the three governors.
The tripartite territory was bounded on the north, amid wild mountains, by the Hakkari sanjaq of Van wilaya: on the north-west, by a short facie of the Jazira-ibn-`Umar qadhā of Diyarbakr wilaya: on the west, by the newly created 'independent' sanjaq of Dayr al-Zur. Farther south the boundary lay at the mid-desert frontier of the wilaya of Damascus and, south again, crossed the deserts of north Arabia, beyond which lay the Arab oasis principalities. To the south also lay the waters of the Persian Gulf and, along its western shores, a stretch of maritime Arabia which was claimed as Turkish and grouped officially under the Basra wilaya. To the east, bordering all three provinces, lay Persia.
These boundaries were those of modern 'Iraq save in three particulars. The Persian frontier was still undemarcated; the line observed or flouted in 1900 was in places to be amended by the Commission of 1914. The boundary with the Turkish provinces of Van and Diyarbakr was to be fixed in 1926, that with later Syria in 192o and 1933, that with the Arabian rulers in 1922. The territories of al-Ahsā, Qatar, and Kuwayt ceased to be Turkish before or during the First World War, and do not concern the historian of 'Iraq.
Contents
I. The 'Iraq of 1900 / I 1. The three wilayas / 1 2. Country and people / 6 3. Persian and Arab neighbours / 12 4. 'Iraq society: the towns / 17 5. 'Iraq society: the tribes / 22 6. Resources and communications / 27 7. The Government / 34
II. The last of Turkish 'Iraq / P. 41 1. Turkish politics and Arab nationalism / 41 2. Administration: the last phase / 47 3. Town and tribe / 51 4. Projects, by land and water / 59) 5. Neighbours and foreigners / 66
III. War and british occupation / 75 1. Midsummer 1914 / 75 2. The campaign in lower 'Iraq / 77 3. British and Turkish 'Iraq, 1915-16 / 81 4. Kut – Baghdad - Mosul / 86 5. British war-time administration, 1917-18 / 92
IV. Mandate and monarchy / 99 1. After the Armistice / 99 2. British administration, 1919-20 / 107 3. Opposition to the British / 114 4. Insurrection, 1920 / 122 5. The King / 126
V. The 'Iraq kingdom / 134 1. A reign begins / 134 2. The first Treaty / 139 3. The threat to Mosul / 144 4. Constituent Assembly / 148 5. The Mosul Settlement / 152 6. The other neighbours / 158 7. Life and Government, 1921-6 / 162 8. Development / 171
VI. To independence / 176 1. Treaty deadlock / 176 2. Progress to Geneva / 181 3. Reflections on a Mandate / 187 4. The minorities / 191 5. Governors and governed / 200 6. Communications and development / 207 7. Foreign affairs, 1927-32 / 214
VII. Al-istiqlal al-tamm / 221 1. Assessment in 1932 / 221 2. Assyrian climax / 229 3. The Hashimi Ministry / 237 4. Bakr Sidqi / 247 5. Land, air, and water / 256 6. Foreign affairs / 263
VIII. Prelude to war / 269 1. The fourth Madfa'i Ministry / 269 2. Death of the King / 275 3. First months of war / 277 4. Gaylani and Hashimi / 282 5. Thirty-day war / 288
IX. The second world war / 298 1. Paiforce / 298 2. The middle war years / 302 3. The Pachachi Ministry / 309 4. War-time economics / 316 5. Kurdish alarms / 324 6. The Arab League / 328
X. End of the half-century / 334 1. Gathering storm / 334 2. Portsmouth and Palestine / 344 3. Plus Fa change / 351 4. Wealth of a nation / 364 5. Town and country, mid-century / 380 6. The State / 392
Appendixes / 399 A. Comparative table of islamic (hijra) and christian years, 1890-1955 / 399 B. Area and population, by administrative units / 400 C. Sources of the present work / 401 Index of sources / 413 General index / 416 Map at end
PREFACE
MORE than a quarter of a century has passed since, a young official of the 'Iraq Government, I published an account of the four centuries of that country's history ending in 1900.That tentative and imperfect work has not, to my knowledge, been superseded; and as it seems now to call for a continuation into more recent times I have tried in the volume now offered to carry out this task. My own connexion with the territory, which has been continuous since 1915, has included some sixteen years of residence there followed by annual or more than annual visits, and has been favoured by the friendship of many scores of 'Iraqis at all levels, including perhaps two-thirds of those mentioned in these pages.
The interest which 'Iraq offered formerly to the world—that of history, archaeology, strategy, economics, and social structure—has grown not, less but greater during the last generation. Apart from the personal and affectionate interest felt by many friends of the 'Iraqis, the circumstances of the foundation of their nation, its era of tutelage and emancipation, its varying fortunes as an independent State, its social and cultural development as illustrating the familiar but uneasy impact of West on East, its revelation of national character, its share in Arab politics and in world groupings, its material development, its possible future: all these should contribute to a story well worth the telling, if it can be rightly told. At the same time I, and probably some readers, must regret the absence from these pages of many or most of the figures—tribal or village chiefs, town 'notables' and professional men, the humble as well as the eminent in officialdom and the general public—so long and so well known to residents in 'Iraq in this or that part of a wide, varied, and deeply interesting country. It is indeed regrettable that so little of this element of social life, enriched by many picturesque, responsive, and often eminent personalities of the country, will appear in this history; indeed much of the best that `Iraq has to offer in courtesy, humour, and kindliness must be here unrecorded.
The need for a general account of the last half-century in 'Iraq has not hitherto been met. There are diplomatic papers, military histories and dispatches, travellers' tales, 'Iraqi political writings and a voluminous press, biographies of the eminent, and a few scholars' and specialists' monographs: but there seems to be no single work attempting to be both as comprehensive and as reliable as the variety and the too close proximity of the events will permit. I have hoped to be of use in helping both the contemporary reader and the future historian in the formation of just judgements and the avoidance of factual errors, by giving them access to an objective version of what 'Iraq has done and suffered, received and contributed, during these fifty years.
The decision which I made in 1925, to close my narrative of Four Centuries at 1900, was wise in its avoidance of the need to refer to actors on the 'Iraqi stage who were still living and in many cases my friends. I am not this time able to avoid the dangers of such references, and I anticipate the pained surprise of those whom, as they may feel, I have misrepresented or misjudged. Others, including some of my own countrymen, will regret that their names, in spite of admirable services rendered—of which I am not ignorant—find no place in these pages. This, whatever one's efforts to be just, cannot in practice be otherwise, as long as a fallible historian is forced, as he is, to assess and to omit. It is certain that much valuable service to 'Iraq is here unrecorded, and that another writer might well judge differently of the acts and motives of many individuals, movements, or factors which play their parts in these pages. To no reader, I am certain, will the shortcomings of this work be as apparent as they are to me; the necessity to compress and to over-simplify—often with imperfect knowledge—has led to results which, in page after page, I must condemn as inadequate to the interest of the subject-matter.
The 'Iraq of 1951 is a country which, with an increasing though still imperfect sense of unity and nationhood, neither has any reasonable claims or grievances against any other, nor is itself the subject of others' demands. Its boundaries are fixed, its climate healthy, its people increasing and progressive. It possesses abundance of fertile land and controllable water, and the certainty that these together can produce, as they did in earlier ages, great material wealth; and it has a well-exploited mineral resource of exceptional richness to provide funds, meanwhile, for works of development and for social services. Few territories can be more-blessed by nature with materials for 'the good life' of its citizens, who are themselves unusually intelligent and by no means incapable of progress, and for whose manifold increase room and to spare will be available. The highest hopes for the future of 'Iraq can not unreasonably be formed by its people and by its foreign friends, who are many and sincere. With what pleasure would these latter, who include myself, watch the progress and happiness of this nation! To achieve these, stability and continuity are indispensable conditions; all must depend, it seems, on the ability of its leaders, and behind them of the public, to turn their backs on selfish faction and wearisome rhetoric: to keep the goodwill of strong friends among the Powers: and, choosing as their main or sole objective `the greatest happiness of the greatest number' of their own people, to conduct their affairs with good sense and moderation.
No historian of current or very recent events can feel confident that he has seen all the published sources of information about them. I have no such confidence, and can only hope that the bibliography given, which aims at brevity rather than at the portentousness of the thesis-writer, omits no really valuable work. I have used to a varied and selective extent the contemporary newspaper and periodical press of 'Iraq, Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy, as well as histories and monographs published in these countries; have had the advantage of close personal acquaintance with the `Iraqi scene during most of the period covered; and have been exceptionally fortunate in the generous help I have received from `Iraqi and British friends with expert and recent knowledge. Among these I should wish to thank in particular Sayid Tawfiq al-Naqib, of the Port Directorate at Basra: Sayid Salman Juwayda, of the Date Association: Mr. R. C. Kelt, the Port Director: H. E. Sayid Khalil Kunna, Minister of Education: Mr. A. H. Ditchburn, Chief Administrative Inspector: Mr. F. Stoakes, of the `Iraq Petroleum Company: Mr. C. C. Aston, formerly of the 'Iraq Government and latterly chief of the (war-time) Political Adviser-ate: Mr. F. H. Gamble, of the Commercial Section of the British Embassy in Baghdad : Mr. J. J. Page and the late Mr. A. J. B. Chapman, both of the 'Iraq Petroleum Company: Mr. F. S. Hardy and Mr. J. D. Atkinson, each in turn Director of Irrigation: Sir Harry Sinderson, veteran of the 'Iraq Health Services in many capacities: Dr. M. Critchley, of the same service: Mr. J. Battey, of `Mespers' and E. and T. S. N. Co. : and Professor M. E. L. Mallowan, Field Director of the British School of Archaeology in 'Iraq.
The typescript of the book has been read through, and most valuable comments and corrections made, by Sir Reader Bullard, Mr. C. J. Edmonds, and Mr. R. S. M. Sturges, all of whom spent years in positions of responsibility in 'Iraq. It was read also, not without critical comment, by both my sons. I have had kind help from the heads of missionary or religious bodies in 'Iraq, notably Father J. P. Merrick, S.J., and Father S. G. Tunmer of the Dominicans at Mosul, from the Secretary-General of the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Paris, and from spokesmen or correspondents of the American Protestant Missions represented in 'Iraq. Information, verbal or written, has been kindly given by many other friends, who include Mr. W. Allard, formerly Director of Irrigation: Mr. L. M. Swan, formerly Adviser to the Ministry of Finance: Mr. D. W. Gumbley, formerly Inspector-General of Posts and Telegraphs: Mr. E. C. Caparne, formerly Technical Adviser to the Ministry of Communications and Works: Dr.Ahmad Susa, the irrigation engineer and author : Sir John Prichard, President until 1951 of the Court of Appeal: Sayid Darwish Haydar, Director-General of Agriculture: Sayid Tariq al-Askari, now pioneering in 'Iraq scientific agriculture: H. E. Sayid Tawfiq Wahbi, ex-Minister and deeply learned in Kurdish affairs: Judge `Abd al-Hafidh Taha, now of the Basra Petroleum Company: Mr. F. F. Haigh, lately head of the Irrigation Commission of 1946-9: my son, Mr. J. S. Longrigg, of the British Embassy in Baghdad, and Mr. P. Mallet of the same: Mr. W. S. Bailey, formerly of the 'Iraqi Department of Telegraphs.
Confronted with the usual problems of transliteration from Arabic, I have knowingly fallen into some perhaps objectionable compromises and inconsistencies. With most words, I hope, accurately transliterated, I have yielded to the greater comfort of the general reader—or to the mere habit of a lifetime—in retaining Mosul for al-Mawsil, Mecca for Makka, Kupri for Köprü, `Abdullah for `Abd-Allah, Haifa for Hayfa, Alamein for `Alamayn, and similarly for a number of other names. In some place-names there are alternative spellings, where Arabic and Kurdish versions of the word are not identical: in others a final spelling seems to be not yet established. I have omitted hamza, except where medial.
S. H. L. May 1952
Ay me! ay me! with what another heart In days far-off, and with what other eyes I used to watch—if I be he that watch'd— The lucid outline forming round thee…. Tennyson: Tithonus
The Royal Institute of International Affairs is an unofficial and non-political body, founded in 1920 to encourage and facilitate the scientific study of international questions.
The Institute, as such, is precluded by its Royal Charter from expressing an opinion on any aspect of international affairs. Any opinions expressed in this publication are not, therefore, those of the Institute.
Stephen Hemsley Longrigg
'Iraq, 1900 to 1950, a political, social, and economic history
Oxford University Press
Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs
Oxford University Press London New York Toronto
Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C.4 Glasgow New York Toronto Melbourne Wellington Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Cape Town Ibadan
First Published, 1953 Second Impression, 1956
Printed In Great Britain By Billing and sons limited, Guildford and London
