Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains

Jewish Identities in a Changing World

The Kurdish society described in this study does not exist anymore in situ. The Kurdish Jews have migrated to Israel; many of the Assyrian Christians have migrated into many western countries;1 and the Muslim Kurds lived through upheavals and wars that have changed the map of Kurdistan; many of them migrated too. For these reasons, I suspect that this work could not have been written elsewhere.

The study of minority groups enhances insight into the structure and functioning of the society as a whole and clearly reveals “a society’s cohesion and integration.”2 Scholars of diverse disciplines have dealt with Middle Eastern secondary groups, although peripheral communities, such as the Kurds, have not received as much attention as larger communities.

CONTENTS

Preface / ix
Transliteration Notes / xi
Table of Transliteration / xv

Foreword / xvii
Historical Setting / 1
The Land and the Peoples / 1
The Position of the Jews in the Previous Centuries / 9

PART I
URBAN JEWS AND THEIR TRIBAL AGHAS

Preliminary Remarks on the Tribal Kurdish Society / 21
A. The Division between Urban and Rural, Town and Tribe / 21
B. The Dual System of Government / 23
C. Patronage of the Jews by Kurdish Aghas / 24
D. Social, Economic and Religious Institutions / 26

Chapter One Zakho / 33
A. The Family of Shamdin Agha / 33
B. Tribal Aghas and Their Jewish and Christian Subjects / 43
C. The Murders of Assyrians in Bersibi and Kestaye / 46
D. Ijajj-f Sad-fq Biro of the Gulli Tribe and His Jewish Protégé NaVum Sabto / 52
Chapter Two Aqra / 59
A. Khawaja Khinno’s Household / 59
B. The Barzan-f Tribal Chiefs and the Jews / 67

Chapter Three Dohuk / 79
A. Sa'-fd Agha Doski, His Sons and the Jews of Dohuk / 80
B. Shaikh Abdallah Barifkan-f / 93
C. The Feud between Ijajj-f Malo and Shaikh Nurî / 95

Chapter Four Amadiya / 97
A. Amadiya in the Previous Centuries / 97
B. Relations with Local Oficials and Aghas      99
Chapter Five Sulaimaniya / 107
A. The Establishment of Sulaimaniya from the Jews’ Perspective / 108
B. Incident against the Jews / 108
C. The Aghas and the Jews: Shaikh Mahmûd Berzenji / 110
Chapter Six Shino, Mulla Mugafa and the Jews / 113
A. Barzan~’s Jewish Liaison / 114
B. Urban Jews and Their Aghas: Concluding Remarks / 120

PART II
RURAL JEWS AND THEIR TRIBAL AGHAS
Chapter One The Experience of Rural Jews / 125
A.    Sandur, a Jewish Village / 129
B.    Tribal and Non-Tribal Societies / 133
C.    Tribal Patronage / 135
D.    The Image of the Jews / 137
E.    The Status of the Jews / 139
F.    The Jewish Subjects as Assets / 156
G.    Loyalty of the Jews / 159
H.    Helping the Agha / 163

Chapter Two Guardianship and Justice by the Aghas / 167
A. Physical Escort / 168
B. The Justice of Tribal Aghas / 171
C. Rural Jews and Their Agha: Concluding Remarks / 183

PART III
SOME ASPECTS OF DAILY AND PERSONAL LIFE
Chapter One The Safety of Jews in Kurdistan / 187
A. Motives for Migration / 187
B. Murder of Jews in the Tribal Setting —The Tribal Response / 195
Chapter Two The Economic Position of the Jews / 213
A. Before the 20th Century / 213
B. The Main Occupations of Jews / 218

Chapter Three Conversion of Jews to Islam in the Kurdish Society / 247
A. Conversion of Jews to Islam / 247
B. Main Causes for Conversion / 250
C. Mechanisms Applied by the Jews to Overturn Conversion / 258
D. The Role of Aghas and Shaikhs      264
E. Conversion of Jewish Men      266

PART IV
THE LAST GENERATION IN KURDISTAN: BETWEEN
WWI AND THE IMMIGRATION TO ISRAEL
Chapter One Jewish Experience during World War I:
Conscription and Evasion      271
A. Evading Military Service      276
B. Migration because of Scarcity of Food      284
C. Forced Labor      286
D. Casualties of Jewish Soldiers      288
Chapter Two The End of the War and the Years Following 290 A. New Political Developments      295
Chapter Three Jews, Kurds and Arabs, 19411952      300
A. Effects of the Farhud Pogroms      301
B. Effects of the Establishment of the State of Israel      310
C. Accusations and Imprisonment of Jews      325
D. Economic Pressure before the Emigration to Israel      333

Concluding Remarks 338
Glossary / 345
Bibliography / 347
Notes on the Informants / 361
Map: Kurdistan Region / 363
Index / 365

PREFACE

With the completion of this book, I would like to express my appre-ciation to those who helped me in the pursuit of this research. I am grateful to my mentor, Prof. Moshe Sharon, whose excellent scholarship has inspired me, and to Professors Gideon Goldenberg and Benjamin Z. Kedar of the Hebrew University and Norman Stillman formerly of SUNY Binghamton for their kind and attentive guidance. Much grati-tude goes to three outstanding scholars who kindly enriched me with their knowledge: Prof. Joyce Blau, previously from the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris, Dr. Michael Chyet, currently the Middle Eastern Language Cataloger at the Library of Congress and Prof. Yona Sabar of UCLA.
I would like to extend my gratitude to all the informants interviewed for this book, for sharing with me their reminiscences and for making me feel welcome for more interviews and clari~ cations. Without them, I could not have completed this book.1 I am grateful to those who encouraged me in various ways, notably my friend Professor Joshua Korzenik, who hosted me twice at Yale University and the late Patri-cia and Ernest Worth who hosted me during research conducted in London. Special thanks go to the English readers of the manuscripts: Carol and David Pileggi, Janice Karnis, Professor Eddie Levenston and Leigh Ann Lanir.

At last, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents Batyah and Saleh and to my beloved wife Riki and children, Tzah, Tahel and Ohad; much of the research and the actual writing of this book were conducted on time they were deprived of.

_____________________
1 See the names and details of ~ fty-six informants interviewed speci~ cally for this book, in the Bibliography. Prof. Yona Sabar of UCLA interviewed Yona Gabbai (I# 7) of Zakho in the mid 1960s and kindly allowed me to use it. Susan Meiselas, a photographer and author, interviewed Hertzel and MajTd Gabbai of Khawaja Khinno family from Aqra (I# 9 & 10). I would like to thank Susan Meiselas for allowing me to use this interview.

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