The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project

Auteur :

Éditeur : Southern Illinois University	Date & Lieu : 1991-01-01, Carbondale - USA
Préface :	Pages : 326
Traduction :	ISBN : 0-8093-1572-6
Langue : Anglais	Format : 150x230 mm
Code FIKP : Liv. Ang. 4720	Thème : Politique

Présentation

Table des Matières

Introduction

Identité

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The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project

John F. Kolars
William A. Mitchell

Southern Illinois University

Concerning conditions in the Middle East…

"Populations are growing fast, and cities swell with thirsty people. From North Africa to the Persian Gulf, farms demand water from lands known more for pale deserts and skies that begrudge all but meager rains.

"The reasons for the coming crisis are complex but one factor is common. From the Nile to the Euphrates, rivers slice through already charged frontiers, and governments of conflicting visions seek to mold events in their neighbors' lands and to grasp for whatever water they can control. Many of the nations concerned about their water lie downstream from a hostile or unsettled neighbor."

Alan Cowell, The New York Times

"Water is a resouce vital to life. As any archaeologist looking for prehistoric habitation can testify, a reliable water source is the one absolute prerequisite for human settlement. It is the ultimate survival issue, a 'superordinate goal' that overrides all other concerns. With populations expanding and aspirations for economic development increasing, the demand of Middle Eastern peoples on their limited water resouces is already approaching the 'water barrier' beyond which the need for water becomes a dominant concern."

Thomas Naff, from the Preface

John F. Kolars, professor of geography and Near Eastern studies at the University of Michigan, received a B.Sc. in geology from the University of Washington. After working for the United States Geological Survey he later earned a Ph.D. in geography (with special work in anthropology and Near Eastern studies) from the University of Chicago. His initial research focused upon village development and agricultural change in Turkey. For the last decade he has specialized in the natural characteristics and human use of international rivers in the Middle East. He is a regular lecturer at the Foreign Service Institute of the Department of State, as well as a consultant for USAID and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

William A. Mitchell, Colonel, United States Army Air Force, has served as professor and Chair of the Department of Geography at the United States Air Force Academy. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of Illinois for his research "Post Earthquake Turkish Villages: An Analysis of Disaster Related Modernization." In addition to his military duties at the Air War College and in the Middle East, he has been a member of the Disaster Response Center at Boulder, Colorado, and the Associates for Middle Eastern Research (AMER). His continuing research and field work has focused upon human response to earthquakes in Turkey and Iran as well as investigations of agricultural land use patterns in the Middle East and the regional geography of the Euphrates and Tigris river basin.

Table des Matières

Contents

Maps / xi
Figures / xiii
Tables / xv
Abbreviations and Acronyms / xxi
Note on Transliteration / xxiii
Editor's Preface / xxv

1. Turkey, the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin, and the Southeast Anatolia Project / 1
The Euphrates (Firat) River / 3
The Tigris River / 6
Turkish National Hydrodevelopment Programs / 8
Strategy for the Future / 16

2. The Southeast Anatolia Project: An Overview / 18
Overview of GAP / 19
The Development of GAP: A Chronological Review / 25
Financing and Associated Problems / 30
The Euphrates Portion of GAP / 34
The Tigris Portion of GAP / 43
Achieving the Goals of GAP / 43

3. Industry and Agriculture in the Southeastern Anatolia Project Region / 46
Development Overview / 47
Industry / 48
Potable Water for Domestic Use / 53
Agriculture in the GAP Region / 56
Prospects / 74

4. The Impact of Development upon the Waters of the Euphrates River and Its Tributaries / 77
Characteristics of Middle East River System Use / 78
River Systems—An Overview / 82
Organization of the Analysis / 83

5. Average Annual Discharge of the Euphrates River: Turkey into Syria, Syria into Iraq / 85
Discharge in Turkey / 87
Flow in Syria / 89 Flow in Iraq / 100
The Average Regime / 101
Safe Values / 104

6. The Euphrates System in Syria / 106
Relative Shares of Euphrates Water: Birecik, Turkey, to Hit, Iraq / 108
The Relationship Between Euphrates Flow and That of Its Syrian Tributaries / 113

7. Water Use per Hectare and Anticipated River Depletion / 124
Methods of Computation / 125
Definition of Components / 127
Potential Evapotranspiration / 130
Water Balance / 131

8. Irrigated Agriculture in the Syrian Euphrates Drainage Basin / 143
Background to the Problem / 144
Proposed Irrigation / 145
Revisions of Proposed Irrigation Goals / 151
Production Achieved by State-Run Projects / 154
Privately Cultivated Land / 156
Water Depletion from Syrian Irrigation on the Euphrates / 164
9. The Khabur River and Its Tributaries / 167
Hydrogeology of the High Jezirah / 170
Turkish-Syrian Shares of Khabur Waters / 179

10. Static and Dynamic Views of the Euphrates River System / 192
Constraints on Dynamic Modeling / 192
A Static Model of the Euphrates River and Its Uses / 196
The Use of the Euphrates in Turkey / 215
The Use of the Euphrates in Syria / 221
A Critical Pressure Point: The Ceylanpinar/Ras al-Ayn Area / 222
"Natural Flow" of the Euphrates / 232
Sedimentation and Water Quality / 235
Conclusion / 258

11. The Years Ahead / 259
A Realistic Prognosis / 259
Status of GAP, September 1988 / 261
A Revised Schedule for GAP / 265
Financial and Managerial Aspects of GAP / 267
Future of Syrian Euphrates Development / 274
Turkey and the Middle East Pax Aquarum / 282

Appendix A. System Efficiency and Return Flow / 301
Appendix B. Natural River Flow / 307
References / 309
Index / 319

Maps

2.1. Tigris and Euphrates river system / 20
2.2. Six provinces directly affected by GAP / 21
2.3. The Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP) / 22
8.1. Irrigation regions within the Euphrates basin in Syria / 149
8.2. Resource planning units of northeastern Syria / 157
9.1. Precipitation of northeastern Syria / 169
9.2. Hydrography of northeastern Syria / 171
9.3. Streams and springs of the Jezirah / 172
9.4. The Khabur and its tributaries / 173
9.5. Aquifers in the catchment area of the Jezirah / 176
9.6. Sub-drainage basins of the Khabur / 186
9.7. Hydrologic subdivisions of the Khabur basin / 187
10.1. Headwaters of the Euphrates / 216
10.2. Hydrography of the Euphrates below Keban / 217
10.3. GAP project areas of the Lower Euphrates / 218
10.4. Named reservoirs: Karakaya and downstream / 219
10.5. Valley of the Euphrates near Meskene / 243
10.6. Groundwater hydrochemistry of the Jezirah / 249
10.7. Anions in the groundwaters of the Jezirah / 250
10.8. Cations in the groundwaters of the Jezirah / 251
11.1. Water surplus areas in the Middle East / 286
11.2. Alternate routes for the "Peace Pipeline" / 290
11.3. Runoff for 26 drainage basins of Turkey / 292

Figures

1.1. General Directorate of State Water Works (DSI) / 10
1.2. DSI regional directorate / 11
1.3. Organization of regional directorates / 12
1.4. DSI regions in Turkey / 13
1.5. Line functions within DSI / 13
4.1. Hypothetical international river use system / 79
5.1. Yearly discharge of the Euphrates / 88
5.2. Annual discharge of selected Syrian rivers / 98
6.1. Difference in discharge at Birecik and Hit / 115
6.2. Relationship between flow at Birecik and Flit / 116
6.3. Annual discharges at Birecik and Hit / 117
6.4. Discharge of the Euphrates at Birecik and Hit / 118
6.5. Flow at Birecik and Hit / 119
6.6. Two-year averages at Birecik and Hit / 120
6.7. Discharge of the Euphrates at Hit / 121
7.1. Water balance for Siverek / 136
9.1. Geologic cross-section of the Jezirah / 174
9.2. Hydrology of the Khabur basin / 188
9.3. Changes of actual and natural flow / 190
10.1. Water subtractions: Euphrates River / 212
10.2. Stream flow of the Khabur at Suwar / 224
10.3. Ras al-Ayn exhaustion time / 226
10.4. Proposed hydrologic relationships in Ceylanpinar (Ras al-Ayn) region / 228
10.5. Proposed hydrologic relationships in Ras al-Ayn (Jezirah) region / 229
10.6. Mean monthly flow of the Euphrates at Hit / 236
10.7. Flood frequency of Euphrates at Hit / 240
10.8. Low-water frequency curve of Euphrates at Hit / 241
10.9. Euphrates sediment discharge at Deir ez-Zor / 242
10.10. Dissolved solids concentration for the Athi at ol Donyo Sabuk / 244
10.11. Salt content of the Sevier in Utah / 245
10.12. Salinity and discharge at Hit / 245
10.13. USDA classification of irrigation waters / 247
10.14. Water budget of the Euphrates / 254
11.1. Projected depletion of the Euphrates / 268
11.2. Population in SW Asia and NE Africa / 285
11.3. Runoff of the 26 drainage basins of Turkey / 293

Tables

1.1. Dams constructed prior to Republic era / 9
1.2. Population by DSI region / 14
1.3. Increase in irrigated areas / 17
2.1. Benefits expected after river development / 23
2.2. Electrical capacity and production / 24
2.3. Existing irrigation from ponds and undammed waters / 29
2.4. Projected potential - Southeast Anatolia region / 30
2.5. Average sizes of selected settlements in GAP region / 33
2.6. Technical parameters for major dams on the Euphrates in Turkey / 36
2.7. Additional technical parameters for Ataturk Dam and power plant / 39
2.8. The world's largest dams / 40
2.9. Urfa irrigation tunnel / 42
2.10. Dams and hydroelectric power plants in Tigris basin in Turkey / 44
3.1. Provinces ranked by industrial establishments, employees, and value-added / 48
3.2. Functional regions of Turkey / 49
3.3. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Adiyaman / 51
3.4. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Diyarbakir / 52
3.5. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Gaziantep / 52
3.6. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Mardin / 53
3.7. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Sanliurfa / 54
3.8. Small-scale manufacturing establishments - Siirt / 54
3.9. Large-scale industrial establishments in GAP provinces / 55
3.10. Water consumption in GAP provincial centers / 56
3.11. Future water needs of provincial centers / 56
3.12. Employment by economic sector in GAP provinces / 57
3.13. Types of agricultural crops in GAP region / 58
3.14. Land classification in GAP provinces / 59
3.15. Arable and cultivated land in GAP region / 60
3.16. Major production groups in GAP region / 61
3.17. Cereal production in GAP region / 62
3.18. Wheat production in GAP region / 63
3.19. Barley production in GAP region / 63
3.20. Vegetable production in GAP region / 64
3.21. Irrigated land in GAP region / 64
3.22. Anticipated crop production resulting from GAP / 65
3.23. Number of tractors in GAP provinces / 66
3.24. Levels of farm mechanization / 67
3.25. Pieces of equipment per tractor / 68
3.26. Number of agricultural holdings in GAP region / 69
3.27. Number of animals in GAP provinces / 70
3.28. Categories of landholding in GAP region / 71
3.29. Size and ownership of agricultural enterprises in Urfa province / 72
3.30. Size of farming operations in Merkez and Akcakale Ilceler / 73
3.31. Distribution of landless families in Urfa II, and Merkez and Akcakale Ilceler / 74
5.1. Discharge of Euphrates from Birecik to Hit / 86
5.2. Discharge of Euphrates at Birecik / 90
5.3. Discharge of Euphrates at Hit / 92
5.4. Monthly and annual discharges of Euphrates at Hit / 94
5.5. Discharge of Euphrates in Syria / 97
5.6. Discharge data for selected rivers in Syria / 99
5.7. Differences in data regarding discharge of Euphrates at Hit / 101
5.8. Cumulative mean annual discharges at Hit / 102
5.9. Ten-year average discharges of Euphrates at Hit / 103
5.10. Estimate of Euphrates flow to the year 1973 / 105
6.1. Euphrates discharge from Birecik to Hit / 108
6.2. Yearly flows of the Sajur/Sacir River / 109
6.3. Yearly flows of the Qweik/Balik River / 111
6.4. Yearly flows of the Balikh/Culap River / 112
6.5. Yearly flows at Birecik and Hit / 114
7.1. Irrigation water needs - "Sulama Suyu Gereksinimi" / 126
7.2. Interpretations of "Sulama Suyu Gereksinimi" / 128
7.3. Potential evapotranspiration: Turkish and Syrian locations / 132
7.4. Annual water fund depletion / 134
7.5. Water balance for Siverek / 137
7.6. Water balance for Urfa / 138
7.7. Water balance for Ceylanpinar / 139
7.8. Water balance for Nusaybin / 140
8.1. Irrigated land projects in Syrian Euphrates drainage area / 146
8.2. Irrigated land in Syrian Euphrates project area / 150
8.3. The Euphrates Valley pilot/pioneer project / 151
8.4. Dams in Euphrates basin in Syria / 153
8.5. Status report on Euphrates irrigation project / 155
8.6. "Intensively cultivated land" in selected regions of northern Syria / 158
8.7. Intensive agriculture: Northeast Syria / 160
8.8. On-line government project lands / 161
8.9. Water-fund depletion from evapotranspiration and related deficits / 162
8.10. Irrigated land in Euphrates drainage basin, northern Syria / 164
8.11. Sources of irrigation water in Euphrates drainage basin, northern Syria / 165
9.1. Locations, elevations, and precipitation in Syria and Turkey / 170
9.2. The Ras al-Ayn (Springs) / 177
9.3. Springs of the high Jezirah / 178
9.4. Precipitation in the basin and sub-basins of the Khabur / 180
9.5. Turkish-Syrian shares of available water in Khabur / 184
10.1. Keban Reservoir - recharge rates / 194
10.2. Keban Reservoir average evaporation and average inflow / 198
10.3. Dams, reservoirs, and irrigation on the Euphrates / 201
10.4. Variations in water use, loss, and depletion / 213
10.5. Distribution of irrigated areas of lower Euphrates project / 223
10.6. Existing irrigated land in GAP area / 233
10.7. Recorded flows at Hit / 238
10.8. Salinity at two different locations on the Euphrates / 246
10.9. Composition and concentration of salinity in Syrian Jezirah / 252
10.10. Iraq's projected share of Euphrates water / 255
10.11. Water budget: Euphrates from headwaters to the Iraqi border / 256
11.1. GAP hectarages to be irrigated / 263
11.2. Sub-unit in Harran Plain irrigation area / 264
11.3. GAP projects and river depletions / 266
11.4. Project water depletion and return flow: Syrian Euphrates and tributaries / 276
11.5. Syrian project and private water depletion and return flow / 278
11.6. Water depletion and return flows upon completion of all projects / 279
11.7. Water use on Syrian Euphrates / 281
11.8. Population growth in Middle Eastern and Northeast African countries / 284
11.9. Runoff of 26 drainage basins in Turkey / 294
A.1. System efficiency in Near Eastern irrigation systems / 302
A.2. Water use efficiencies in Egypt / 303
A.3. Urfa-Harran water use - Urfa tunnel / 304
A.4. Mardin - Ceylanpinar water use - Hilvan pumpage / 305
A.5. Return flows in Near Eastern irrigation systems / 306
B.1. Average "natural" flow at Hit / 308

Abbreviations and Acronyms

B.C.E. Before Christian Era
DSI Devlet Su Isleri (The General Directorate of State Water Works)
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations)
GADEB General Authority for the Development of the Euphrates Basin
GAP Guneydogu Anadolu Projesi (Southeast Anatolia Development Project)
GNP Gross National Product
HEPP hydroelectric power plant
HES hydroelectric station
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
PE potential evapotranspiration
RF return flow
RPU Resource Planning Unit
SAR Syrian Arab Republic
TEK Electrical Authority
TCSV Turkiye Cevre Sorunlari Vakfi (Turkish Environmental Issues Foundation)
TL Turkish lira
TS Toprak Su (General Directorate of Land and Water Development - no longer in operation)
TTRM Toprak ve Tarim Reform Mustesarligi (Secretariat for Soil and Agricultural Reform)
TUBITAK Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Arastirma (Turkish Foundation for Scientific and Technical Research) UAR United Arab Republic
USGS United States Geologic Survey
USAID United States Agency for International Development