Contents
Preface / xi Intyroduction / 1
How this thesis come to be written / 1 Subject of this study / 9 A not e on the written sources / 12 A note on the transcription of oriental words / 14
Chapter I General information on Kurdistan / 16 I. a Geography / 16 I. b Geopolitical situation / 19 I. c Population / 20 I. d Economies: peasant farming, transhumant semi-nomadism, pastoral nomadism / 22 I. e Other economic activities: crafts/industries and trade; development and under-development / 26 I. f Language / 29 I. g Religion / 31 I. h The nationalist war in Iraq / 34
Chapter II Tribes, chieftains and non-tribal groups / 39 II. a The tribe and its subdivisions /40 The household / 42 The village / 47 Corporate action on levels other than the village / 48 II. b Kurdish terms / 52 II. c Blood feuds and other conflicts / 59 Ending feuds by mediation / 63 Marriage type and tribal conflict / 68 Other sorts of conflict / 69 II. d Higher than the tribe? / 70 Units larger than the tribe / 70 Dichotomy of the social universe / 73 II. e Leadership and conflicts / 78 Who becomes the leader? / 79 II. f Leadership: titles and functions / 81 II. g The guest-house (dîwan, dîwanxane) / 82 II. h Economic aspects: tribute to the agha / 88 The Balik tribe as an example / 89 II. i .Leadership among a number of different tribes / 91 Hengûr / 92 Pijder / 94 Hemewend / 97 Dizeyî / 99 II. j Power as o process: colonization of the northern Cezîre / 102 The Hevêrkan confederation and Hoco / 110 II k Subject "non-tribal" peasantry and their relations with tribal Kurds / 117 Economic exploitation of peasantry by tribesmen / 118 Ethnic differences / 119 II. l The Gûron / 122 Conclusion: Gûran and gûran / 129 Intermezzo: religious peculiarities of the Gûran / 130 How Kurdish are the Gûran? / 133 II. m Nomads and peasants: one or two peaples? / 135 Conclusion / 144
Chapter III Tribes and the state III. a Resume of characteristics of the Kurdish tribe; introduction to the discussion in this chapter / 145 III. b Tribes of Kurdistan not autonomous units / 148 III. c Same recurring patterns: tribes and the government of states in the Middle East / 150 III. d Same recurring patterns: centre- periphery relations / 153 The Merwanids / 156 III. e The incorporation of Kurdistan into the Ottoman Empire / 161 Prelude: Qaraqoyunlu and Aqqayunlu / 161 The Safavids / 163 The event s as seen from below / 167 Ottoman-Safavid confrontation / 168 Ottoman policy vis-à-vis the Kurds / 169 III. f Political history of same Kurdish emirates / 172 1. The meliks of Hisnkeyf / 172 2. Hekari and its mirs / 174 3. Çemişkezek / 179 III. g Administrative organization of (Ottoman) Kurdistan in the 16th century / 181 Land regime and administrative organization of the Ottoman Empire (15th - 16th centuries) / 181 The application of Ottoman administrative organization in Kurdistan / 189 III. h Internal organization of the Kurdish emirates / 194 1. Bitlis / 195 2. Baban / 208 III. i Intermezzo: the emigration to northeastern Iran / 215 III. j Political changes in the 19th century / 220 III. k The rise of Bedr Xan Beg and the fall of the emirate of Botan / 222 Botan after the disappearance of the mir / 227 Conclusion / 228 III. l The new land code and its effects / 229 Land policy of the British in Iraqi Kurdistan / 232 III. m The establishment of Kurdish tribal militias: Hamidiye / 233 III. n Changes in the early 20th century / 239 New borders: the further partitioning of Kurdistan / 240 Tribal policies of the successor states / 241 III. o A few remarks to conclude this chapter / 244
Chapter IV Shaikhs: mystics, saints and politicians / 249 IV a Introductory remarks / 249 IV b The dervish and sufi orders / 259 IV c Sufi and dervish orders: organized popular mysticism / 262 IV d History of the Qadiri order as an example / 269 IV e Other saints of Kurdistan / 275 IV f Qadiri shaikhs in Kurdistan / 277 Şex Hehmûd's revolts / 278 The Talebani shaikhs / 280 IV. g The Naqshbandi tariqa and the Naqshbandi order / 281 IV. h Why did the Naqshbandi order spread so rapidly? / 284 IV i Rituals of the Qadiri order / 296 IV. j The Naqshbandi ritual / 305 The meditations in the Naqshbandi ritual / 308 Orthodoxy and heterodoxy / 312 IV. k Shaikh and khalifa; relations with other shaikhs / 313 IV. l The shaikh and his followers / 315 IV. m The economic power of shaikhs / 318 IV. n Two shaikhs: Şex Osman of Durû and Şex Saida of Cezire / 319 Şex Osman / 319 Şex Saida / 324 IV. o Massianism / 327 IV. p Lass of influence of shaikhs / 333 IV. q Islamic revival: nurculuk / 338
Appendix to Chapter IV / 340 I. Branches of the Berzenci family / 341 II. The Sedate Nehri and the Barzani family / 345 III. The sheikhs of Biyare/Tawêla and of Palû / 348 IV. Other important Naqshbandi families / 349 V. More influential Naqshbandi sheikhs / 350
Chapter V Șêx Seîd's revolt / 353 V. a Introduction / 353 A note on the sources for this chapter / 354 V. b History of Kurdish national consciousness / 356 Periods in nationalism / 357 Kurds: a nation? / 358 Nationalist currents in the Ottoman Empire / 360 V. c End of the Ottoman Empire and birth of the Republic of Turkey / 362 Armenian massacres and Russian invasion / 362 Armistice and partition of the Empire / 363 The Turkish War of Independence / 364 The Republic of Turkey / 367 The Mosul question / 368 V. d The first Kurdish political organizations / 369 Nationalist organizations after the war and the kemalists / 373 Azadî / 376 V. e Şex Seid's revolt / 378 The religious factor / 378 A contemporary view of the state of affairs in 1924 / 380 Ehsan Nûrî's mutiny and desertion / 382 New plans for the revolt / 383 Outbreak of the revolt / 385 Suppression of the revolt / 389 V. f External and internal support for the revolt / 394 British aid ? / 394 Arms / 395 Turkish opposition / 395 V. g Participation among the Kurds / 397 Non-tribal Kurds / 399 Urban notables / 400 Urban lower classes / 401 V. h The Naqshbandî order and the revolt / 401 V. i Religious vs. nationalist character of the revolt / 404
Chapter VI / 407
Some oriental terms occurring in this book / 422 Notes / 425 Bibliography / 449 Index / 460 Beknopte samenvatting (short summary in Dutch) / 463
List of maps and figures
Map 1 (general map) / ix Map 2 The Kurds in the Middle East / 17 Map 3 Oil installations and international transport routes in Kurdistan / 20 Map 4 Dialects spoken in Kurdistan / 31 Map 5 Places and tribes mentioned in Chapter II / 58 Map 6 The northern Cezîre / 103 Map 7 Qaraqoyunlu and Safavid empires / 165 Map 8 Location of the most important emirates / 190 Map 9 Bitlîs and its surroundings / 197 Map 10 Baban and its surroundings 209 Map 11 Khorasan / 219 Map 12 The emirate of Botan at the period of greatest expansion (1846) / 223 Map 13 Important centres of propagation of the Naqshbandî order / 283 Map 14 The areas affected by Şêx Seîd's revolt / 386 Map 15 The districts in revolt (after the daily Cumhuriyet, March 27, 1925) / 388
Fig. 1 Segmentary lineage structure / 42 Fig. 2 Consistent father's brother's daughter marriage / 69 Fig. 3 Partial family tree of the Dûrikî aghas (mala Ebbas) / 105 Fig. 4 Partial family tree of the Hevêrkan aghas (mala Osman) / 112 Fig. 5 Social stratification of Kurdish society / 143 Fig. 6 Growth of the administrative network and the breaking up of large autonomous units in the periphery / 245 Fig. 7 As the administrative network is refined, local units become smaller and less complex / 247 Fig. 8 Structure and phases of development of the Oadirî and Naqshbandî orders in Kurdistan / 287
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