Table of Contents
Illustrations / 11
Chapter 1: Introduction / 21 I. Introduction / 21 II. Forms of Internal Conflict / 21 HI. Content of the Book / 25 IV. State of the Field / 26 A. Crimean War / 26 B. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878 / 39 V. Social and Psychological Aspects of Ottoman Collapse and the Era of Wars / 47 A. Methodology / 47 B. Social and Psychological Perspectives / 51 VI. Why War? / 56
Chapter 2: Regular Army and Control of Empire / 58 I. Introduction / 58 n. Army and Control of Empire / 59 A. The Nizam [Regular Army]. Myth and Reality / 59 1. The Myth of Army Control over Ottoman Subjects / 59 2. The Reality of Ottoman Efforts to Control Subjects / 60 B. Military D Strategy, Tactics, and Communications / 61 C. Provincial Military Garrisons / 65 1. The Balkans / 65 2. Anatolia / 70 3. The Arabic Provinces / 75 III. Dynamics of Military Operations / 75 A. Tanzimat Military Reforms on European Models / 76 1. Chain of Command / 76 2. Army Organization and Regimental Systems / 77 3. Creating an Army Capable of the Offensive Operation / 83 IV. Corruption: The Chief Obstacle to Military Operations / 86 A. Corruption: Issues and Examples / 86 B. Structured Analysis of Corruption by Type / 91 1. Corruption Originating in Institutional Problems / 91 2. Dishonesty of Officers and Officials / 96
Chapter 3: Irregular Soldiers and Civil Disorder /105 I. Introduction. Definitions /105 II. Origins /105 III. Mercenaries and Militarized Societies in the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Empire and Greece /114 A. Introduction: Structure, Genesis, and Function /114 1. Reasons for the Existence of Irregular Troops in the 19th Century / 115 2. Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Definitions of Irregulars / 115 3. Greek Definitions / 121 B. Composite Bands, or Bands of Mixed Origin / 123 1. The Composite Band: Dynamics of Unit Morale and Operation / 123 2. The Composite Band and the Marginal Man / 127 3. A Composite Force in the Crimean War: General Yfisuf s Irregular Cavalry / 127 C. Bands of Common Cultural or Tribal Origin / 131 1. Albanians [Arnavflts / 133 2. Circassians or Cherkes / 137 3. Kurds / 154 III. The Band as an Enterprise / 161 IV. Functions of Irregular Cavalry / 163 A. General / 163 B. Scouting, Picket, and Guard Duty in No Man’s Land / 164 C. Courier and Escort Service / 164 D. Skirmshing Activities / 165 E. Cavalry Screen for Marching Army, or, an Advance Guard / 166 F. The Raid / 167 G. Provincial Garrison Troops / 171 V. Military Customs and Unit Order of Irregular Bands and Soldiers / 172 A. Military Customs / 172 1. Administrative Customs / 172 2. Habits on Campaign / 172 VI. Conclusion / 174
Chapter 4: Rebellions and Revolutions in the Ottoman Empire, 1835-1878 / 175 I. Ottoman Society and Social Attitudes / 175 A. Introduction. Ottoman Race Theory / 175 1. Perso-Islamic and Ottoman Perceptions of Social Order: Race Theory / 175 2. Ottoman Philosophy of Tyranny and Conservative Political Philosophy / 176 B. Traditional and Historical Ideas of Race in the 19th Century / 182 C. Xenophobia and Paranoia / 185 D. Assimilationism and Anxiety / 187 E. Orientations / 189 II. Rebellion and Revolution in the Ottoman Empire / 189 A. Introduction / 189 B. Semi-autonomous Military and Local Authorities not in Revolt but Resistant to State Authority and control / 190 1. Uncontrollable “Loyal” Chieftains / 190 2. The Government’s “Ability” to Control Irregulars / 193 3. Vendetta, Blood Feud, Vigilantism and Terrorism / 198 III. Insurrections / 204 A. General / 204 B. Case Studies / 205 1. Armenian Conflicts - 1848 / 205 2. Afshar Revolt. 1852 / 209 3. Cretan Insurrection. 1866-1869 / 212 4. Kurdish Revolts. Millingen - 1860s / 225 5. Montenegro - 1876-1877 / 229 IV. Conclusion / 232 A. Movements and Rebellions / 232 B. Suppression of Revolts / 234
Chapter 5: Ottoman Crimean War, 1853-1856 / 236 I. Introduction / 236 II. The Danube Campaign. 1853-1854 / 242 III. Greek Insurrection, Siege of Silistra, and the Dobruja Expedition. 1854 / 248 A. Greek Insurrection / 248 B. The Siege of Silistra. May to June, 1854 / 254 C. The Dobruja Expedition. July, 1854 / 262 1. Battle at Giurgevo. July 7, 1854 / 262 2. Dobruja Expedition / 262 D. The Crimea and Beatson’s Bash'i-Bozuks. 1854-1856 / 268 1. The Crimea / 268 2. Beatson’s Bash'i-Bozuks / 269 IV. Anatolia. 1854-1855 / 278 A. Ottoman Failures and European Soldiers-of-Fortune. 1853-1854 / 278 B. The British Military Commission and the Siege of Kars. 1854-1855 / 281 V. The Transcaucasian Campaign. 1855 / 294 VI. Rebellions and Early Terrorism / 297 A. Revolt in Armenia. 1854-1855 / 297 B. Revolt of Yazdan Shir Bukhti, 1855 / 298 C. 1859 - Kiileli Vak'asi [Incident] [Ottoman Empire / 303 VII. Conclusion / 306
Chapter 6: Balkan Revolutions and Russo-Turkish War, 1875-1878 / 307 I. Ottoman Military Reform and the Ottoman Army: to 1877 / 307 A. Balkan Revolts: 1875-1876 / 308 B. Cherkes Hasan Incident. 1876 / 311 II. Course of the War: 1877-1878 / 315 A. The Danube Campaign / 317 B. The Anatolian and Caucasian Campaigns / 342 C. Refugees. Social and Psychological Issues / 352 1. Ottoman Refugees: the Bulgarian Theater / 352 2. Derangement / 355 3. Alienation / 355 4. The Refugee Problem / 356 III. Court-Martial of Suleyman Husnu Pasha: War Strategy and Tactics on Trial / 357 IV. cAli Sûavi Vakcas'i / 367 A. Background / 367 B. Chiraghan Palace Incident - 17 Cemaziyel-evvel, 1295/20 May, 1878 368 C. Psychological Ramifications. Paranoia / 372 V. cAbdiilhSmid II / 376 A. Hamidian Autocracy / 376 B. Denial / 379 VI. Conclusion / 385
Chapter 7: Psychological Factors: Soldiers in an Era of Warfare / 386 I. Destructiveness of War / 386 A. The Psychology of Violence in War and “Peace” / 386 1. Psychological Conditions / 386 2. Aggression / 386 B. General Studies. War Stress and Associated Syndromes / 402 1. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder / 402 2. Life-Death Continuum / 404 C. The Crimean War / 406 1. War and Death in 19th-Century Armies / 406 2. War Stress and Crimean War Soldiers / 407 D. American Civil War, 1861-1865 / 415 1. Life-Death Continuum / 415 2. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Life-Death Continuum / 417 3. Sadism and PTSD / 420 E. Franco-Prussian War. 1870-1871 / 424 II. Psychological Factors in the Ottoman War Experience: 1839-1878 / 427 A. Ottoman Common Soldiers: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder / 427 1. General Comments / 427 2. Soldier’s Attitudes / 429 3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder / 431 B. Aggression and Sadistic Attitudes indicated by Atrocities / 438 1. An Institutional Practice Encouraging Sadistic Behaviour in Soldiers: Impalement as a Punishment for Rebels / 440 2. Rape, A Non-Institutional Aftereffect of Conquest / 442 3. Looting and Atrocities / 445 4. Aggression and Sadism as a Consequence of War Experience / 447
III. Conclusion / 456 Conclusion / 458
Appendix I: Society, Social Change, and Rebellion / 460 Appendix II: Psychological Profiles of Generals in the Ottoman Army / 466
Bibliography and Abbreviations / 492
Index / 502 |