Vision or Reality? The Kurds in the Policy of the Great Powers, 1941-1947
The Kurdish question is one of the most complex and explosive issues presently confronting the Middle East, and ranks prominently among the many ethno-national problems of the post-war era. A solution to the Kurdish dilemma was in reach after the end of the First World War and immediately after the Second World War. Yet today, the Kurds remain the largest ethnic group in the Middle East not yet to have achieved any form of recognised statehood.
The Kurds have sought control of their own destiny for several decades. Uprisings erupted in Turkey’s Kurdistan in 1925, 1927, 1928–1930 and 1937. Similar upheavals took place in Iraq. In 1919, Shaikh Mahmud Barzinji rose against the British. The Barzani tribe’s revolt against the British and the Iraqi rulers in 1932 was followed by upheavals in 1943 and 1945. Each of these uprisings was suppressed.
Certain scholars have focused on the social and economic aspects of the Kurdish question, while others have stressed the ethno-political nature of the issue. Although both of these dimensions are significant, the Kurdish question can best be illuminated by studying a variety of factors, some within the framework of the Kurdish community itself, others lying outside of it, i.e. in the policy of the states which confront the Kurdish question and in the wider international arena. The period 1941–1947 offers an interesting field of study, revealing a strong interactive relationship between a number of factors with an emphasis on the international dimension... CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS / 15
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS / 16
INTRODUCTION / 17
The Context and Aim of the Study / 17
Theory and Method / 20
Concepts and Definitions / 25
Previous Research and Material / 28
THE KURDS: A GENERAL BACKGROUND / 33
The Kurds and Kurdistan / 33
Kurds within the Ottoman Empire / 39
Kurdish Nationalism / 40
THE KURDS IN IRAN UNTIL 1941 / 47
The Kurds in Iran Prior to the Anglo-Soviet Occupation / 47
The Anglo-Soviet Occupation of Iran / 51
German Activities and the Kurds in Occupied Iran / 55
The Kurds in Iran After the Occupation / 57
THE GREAT POWERS AND THE KURDS: THE FIRST PHASE 1941–1943 / 62
Great Britain’s Kurdish Policy / 62
The Soviet Union’s Kurdish Policy / 62
Kurds, Iranians, and the Great Powers / 70
The Kurds and the Relations among the Great Powers / 78
THE GREAT POWERS AND THE KURDS: THE SECOND PHASE 1944–1945 / 82
The Origins of the Cold War / 82
US Policy in Iran and the Kurds / 84
The Irano-Soviet Oil Crisis / 88
The Soviet Union’s Kurdish Policy / 90
Kurds, Iranians, and the Great Powers / 92
THE KURDISH QUESTION IN IRAQ DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR / 93
The Kurds in Iraq Prior to the Second World War / 93
During the Second World War / 96
The Mulla Mustafa Uprisising 1943–1945 / 98
Further Negotiations with Mulla Mustafa / 100
American Concerns / 104
Political Options / 107
Great Britain’s Cautious Kurdish Policy / 109
Negotiations with Sherif Pasha / 111
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF KURDISTAN 1946 / 113
The Path to the Establishment of the People’s Republic of Kurdistan / 113
The Formation of Political Organisations / 113
The Soviet Connection / 119
The Proclamation of the Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan / 124
The Establishment of the People’s Republic of Kurdistan / 125
Relations with the Central Government / 133
The People’s Republic of Kurdistan and the Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan / 134
The Policy of the Great Powers vis-à-vis the People’s Republic of Kurdistan / 136
THE DEMISE OF THE REPUBLIC / 145
The Internal and Iranian Connections / 146
The Iranian Diplomacy and the International Connections / 149
The Aftermath / 163
CONCLUSIONS / 169
NOTES / 176
BIBLIOGRAPHY / 228 The Context and Aim of the Study
The Kurdish question is one of the most complex and explosive issues presently confronting the Middle East, and ranks prominently among the many ethno-national problems of the post-war era. A solution to the Kurdish dilemma was in reach after the end of the First World War and immediately after the Second World War. Yet today, the Kurds remain the largest ethnic group in the Middle East not yet to have achieved any form of recognised statehood.
The Kurds have sought control of their own destiny for several decades. Uprisings erupted in Turkey’s Kurdistan in 1925, 1927, 1928–1930 and 1937. Similar upheavals took place in Iraq. In 1919, Shaikh Mahmud Barzinji rose against the British. The Barzani tribe’s revolt against the British and the Iraqi rulers in 1932 was followed by upheavals in 1943 and 1945. Each of these uprisings was suppressed.
Certain scholars have focused on the social and economic aspects of the Kurdish question, while others have stressed the ethno-political nature of the issue. Although both of these dimensions are significant, the Kurdish question can best be illuminated by studying a variety of factors, some within the framework of the Kurdish community itself, others lying outside of it, i.e. in the policy of the states which confront the Kurdish question and in the wider international arena. The period 1941–1947 offers an interesting field of study, revealing a strong interactive relationship between a number of factors with an emphasis on the international dimension.
The Kurdish question has drawn increasing attention from the academic community since the close of the Second World War. This study seeks to place the history of the Kurds, particularly those of Iran, into the greater patterns of contemporary Middle East history as well as to link the Kurds to major developments in the period 1941–1947. The study will involve the local, national and international levels, with particular emphasis on the policy of the Great Powers towards the Kurds. Mehrdad Izady has claimed that the Kurds and their political fate in our century should be understood within the context of power politics. Similarly, George Lenczowski has concluded that the question of Great Powers activities among the Kurds during the Second World War warrants a specific study... LUND STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL HISTORY 32
Editors: Bengt Ankarloo, Sven Tägil and Eva Österberg
Vision or Reality?
The Kurds in the Policy of the Great Powers,
1941-1947
Borhanedin A. Yassin
Lund University Press
Box 141
S-221 00 Lund
Sweden
© 1995 Borhanedin A. Yassin
Art nr 20368
ISSN 0519-9700
ISBN 91-7966-315-X Lund University Press
ISBN 0-86238-389-7 Chartwell-Bratt Ltd
Printed in Sweden
Team Offset
Malmö
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